A universal truth ("Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, like in a kitchen").
Gautama's Nyayasutras with Vatsyayana-Bhasya (Ganganatha Jha) nyaya darshan pdf in english
A dedicated visual section explaining the four valid means of knowledge central to Nyaya: A universal truth ("Wherever there is smoke, there
| Step | Name | Statement | Function | | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | | 1 | Pratijna (Proposition) | The hill is on fire. | Assertion to be proved. | | 2 | Hetu (Reason) | Because there is smoke. | Ground for inference. | | 3 | Udaharana (Example) | Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (e.g., a kitchen). | Universal concomitance (Vyapti). | | 4 | Upanaya (Application) | So it is on this hill, which has smoke. | Application of universal rule. | | 5 | Nigamana (Conclusion) | Therefore, the hill is on fire. | Final inference. | | | 2 | Hetu (Reason) | Because there is smoke